Bringing together approaches to reporting on within species genetic diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992) recognises three main levels of biodiversity: ‘diversity within species, between species and ecosystems’. Genetic diversity (heritable variation) underpins their ability to react, adapt be resilient, which is particularly crucial at this time climate change, biodiversity loss. Reporting a key aspect the CBD—all Parties must report progress approximately every 4 years. changes over allows policy makers assess progress, evaluate effectiveness learn from outcomes. However, despite its importance, genetic did not achieve similar recognition other two in 2020 Aichi targets (e.g. Hoban et al., 2020; Laikre 2020) where reported upon, reports were largely limited agricultural or forestry importance (Hoban 2021), are unrepresentative global biodiversity. Concerns about neglect wild species' past decades have led several potential monitoring reporting approaches being proposed. While we welcome burgeoning interest, concerned that choice multiple may lead confusion among makers, conservation practitioners stakeholders. Such continued lack as issue perceived too complex resolve. Having different also limits opportunities make comparisons countries, countries regions, across time, thus mask Given diversity's vital role, believe consolidated approach essential if all maximise protect This paper presents simple framework bring together proposed methods, shows how they related. In our proposals, refers ‘monitoring populations contemporary frames covering least points’ (Hvilsom 2022). examples below will show such can use DNA data proxies (Table 1), results expressed single indicators grouped. Our focus does include more general study molecular markers track individual organisms, barcoding identify species). Indicators measure pressures biodiversity, state responses benefits ecosystem services (Butchart 2010). Group Earth Observations Biodiversity Observation Network (GEO BON) Composition Working has used collaborative international develop Essential Variables (EBVs; 2022), designed for understanding change. These EBVs measure: (a) diversity; (b) differentiation; (c) inbreeding; (d) effective population size (Ne). first require sampling, but usually calculated point sample dataset. Furthermore, using whole genome sequencing data, SNPs, sequences, microsatellites), allowing cost reduced by existing datasets (Kriesner 2020), rather than requiring de novo analysis. Inbreeding inferred 2020, summary measures indicators. As with indicators, these imperfect change careful interpretation application needed, including thoughtfully considering historic recent fragmentation (see 2022 complete discussion). On average, although, should provide relative assessment erosion, an affordable manner, without data. Several developing national programmes diversity. Swedish Agency Marine Water Management (SwAM) integrate into aquatic programme (Andersson 2021). populations, assessing genetically size; applied marine freshwater types Environmental Protection (SEPA) recently prioritised diversity, initiated methods depending target techniques available (Posledovich SEPA Red List apply (Thurfjell Switzerland implementing strategy currently runs pilot (https://gendiv.ethz.ch) small number high priority based earlier feasibility (Fischer stakeholder analysis (Pärli monitor Ne, structure, gene flow, inbreeding, hybridisation, load and, possible, adaptive potential. uses historical (hDNA) collections directly explore temporal dimension infer baselines It resequencing assemblies perhaps making it most powerful considered, although complexity. technologies mature, typically declines, possibly widely applicable. Hollingsworth al. (2020) developed scorecard published Scotland. was compiled expert knowledge disciplines conservation, agriculture statistics. method practical regardless economic development, focuses threats dependent prior knowledge. assesses: demographic declines likely loss (genetic erosion—including size, functional divergent lineages), hybridisation undesirable replacement (note unwanted—in some cases beneficial adaptation natural process contact zones—and rescue rely crossing allochthonous populations), restrictions regeneration/turnover impede evolutionary representativeness ex situ collections, overall risk mitigation summarised ‘green’, ‘amber’ ‘red’ status each species. Scottish covered 26 terrestrial plans expand A version Libya test country facing severe resource constraints. Additionally, standard bibliographic facilitate basic inventory studies domestic any given country, then reported, refer only surveys (single studies). Despite under CBD very partly because broad-scale seen difficult. For example, while measured getting meaningful tens intensive challenging nations. sequence collection dozens hundreds thousands million euros per period: Posledovich 2021 nations need better access training equipment contrast, detailed available, makes sense them. Differential restrict regions others proxies. Comparable important share good practice, enable range. requirements flexible enough allow participate best level technology own requirements. Policy audience who clear, accurate information order informed decisions affecting 2013; Klütsch & Laikre, 2021; Vernesi 2008). multiplicity conclude impractical (Young 2014). healthy debate integral scientific development mixed messages, even specialists agree issues (Spierenburg, 2012). valuable practitioners. disconnect geneticists (‘conservation genetics gap’; 2013) remains problem (Klütsch resolved properly considered nationally internationally, plans. Standardised tools efforts continuum, ensuring facet receives adequate attention achieved. All above strengths already implemented, demonstrating well aligned policy-makers' needs. Hvilsom (2022) found much common, both terms goals selection criteria (Figure 1). measuring informing policy, relevant habitat conservation. Existing measures, units (GCUs; Koskela Minter 2021) efficacy. GCUs processes situ, aiding environmental complementing Effective frequently criterion GCUs. various teams ideas separately now frequent communication, through Coalition Conservation Genetics (Kershaw providing opportunity collaborate standards. We recognise engaging initiatives BioGenome Project, Africa International Barcode Life around world. embrace pragmatism. serve nations, cooperate encompass (including genomic) opinion. common themes reporting, propose bringing them together, categories outlined (Hollingsworth headlines, nesting categorisation would users agreements) select those metrics suitable needs resources (using many possible), expertise, availability. Equally importantly, overview steps increasingly comprehensive reporting. enables consideration interventions, incentivise active To support creation centrally held database hold underlying transparency encourage contributions set up local mechanisms. could established maintained intergovernmental organisation GEO BON IUCN, potentially linking process. Embedding give appropriate weight (Garner Willoughby 2015). Experience EUFORGEN, broader scope albeit smaller geographic area, suggests collaboratively funded coordination mechanism expensive (EUFORGEN's annual budget ≈€350,000; member states contribute €2500–€35,000 each; 2019). suggest funding required cycle (i.e. 2030) ensure realised. proposal status, pressures, state, interventions provided D.O. conceived paper; D.O., L.L., S.H. A.J.M. managed editing coordinated paper's production; authors contributed design component approaches, critically drafts gave final approval publication. R.E.S. graphical abstract. grateful contribution COST Action G-BiKE, CA 18134, supported (European Cooperation Science Technology), www.cost.eu, formed backbone work. thank following agencies separate co-authors: Research Council Formas (grant 2020/012990; LL), 2019-05503; LL). declare no conflict interest. article contain